Documente online.
Username / Parola inexistente
  Zona de administrare documente. Fisierele tale  
Am uitat parola x Creaza cont nou
  Home Exploreaza
Upload






























SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

psychology


SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Topics Psychologists Study

Psychology covers a broad range of subjects. They run the gamut from abnormalities to zero population growth.



Psychologists study basic functions such as learning, memory, language, thought, emotions, and motives. We are concerned with socially vital topics too: among them, divorce, rape, racism, sexism, violence, conservation, and pollution. We investigate development across the life span from birth to death. We are involved in health - mental and physical - and in health care. We try to understand how feelings contribute to physical illnesses, such as cancer and heart disease. We rehabilitate alcoholics, stroke victims, and people with spinal cord injuries. We treat people who are distressed emotionally. We even design machines that are responsive to people

Psychology overlaps with other social sciences, especially sociology. But whereas sociologists direct their attention to groups, group processes, and social forces, social psychologists focus on group and social influences on individuals. The emphasis in psychology is on the individual human being.

Psychology and biology are also closely allied. Physiological psychologists, who are sometimes called psychobiologists, focus on the ways in which behavior and mental functioning are related to biology. They explore the roles of the brain and the rest of the nervous system in functions like memory, language, sleep, attention, movement, perception, hunger, sex, hunger, and joy. They study brain disease and injury and their treatment. They evaluate the impact of drugs.

Definition of psychology

4 The word "psychology" is derived from the Greek word meaning "study of the mind or soul." Today psychology is usually defined as the science that focuses on behavior and mental processes - in all animals. There are a number of key words in our definition: "science," "behavior," "mental processes."

5 You probably have at least a vague notion about what a science is. For now, all we'll say about a science is that it offers disciplined, rational procedures for conducting valid investigations and building up a body of c 19319r1713t oherent and cohesive information. A little later, we will be explaining scientific practices.

6 Psychologists use the word "behavior" very broadly. For many of us, behavior covers just about everything that people and animals do: actions, emotions, ways of communicating, developmental processes, mental processed.

6 There is some debate about whether mental processes are behavior, so our definition mentioned these functions separately. The term "mental process" includes forms of cognition, or ways of knowing: among them, perceiving, attending, remembering, reasoning, and solving problems. Dreaming, fantasizing, wishing, hoping, and anticipating are also mental processes.

Psychology Today

7 We defined psychology as a single discipline, as is generally done. However, the field is really a collection of subfields. Each has its own unique characteristics and requirements; and the sum total might reasonably be called psychological studies rather than psychology (Koch, 1981). The major subfields of psychology are described in Table 1-1.

8 Why do psychologists specialize? The main reason is the vast range of psychology. To appreciate its giant dimensions, consider a few facts. Psychological Abstratcs - a journal that summarizes articles on psychology - listed more than 13,000 items for the year 1978 alone. A journal devoted to reviewing books - Contemporary Psychology - now receives one new psychology book nearly every working hour of every day of the year. The prime source for information about psychological tests lists upward of 77,000 tests (Buros, 1978). [.]

9 The largest percentage of doctorate-holding American psychologists - close to 43 percent - are engaged in direct human services. They counsel, test, and plan programs in mental health clinics, government agencies, schools, prisons, and the like. Another 31 percent primarily teach and do research at institutions of higher learning. An additional 3 percent do research in other settings. About 8 percent are administrators: deans, superintendents of schools, directors of clinics, training programs, consultant services, and so on. Another 4 percent apply psychology in industrial settings (n) (Throughout this text, a black box, (n), marks an appropriate point to read the boxed insert.

nBOX

PSYCHOLOGISTS, PSYCHIATRISTS, PSYCHOANALYSTS

Do you confuse psychologists with psychiatrists? Do you know the differences between psychiatrists and psychoanalysts? For many people, these names conjure up the image of a "shrink." By now it should be clear that psychologists play a number of roles and that many do not fit the popular stereotype at all. Clinical psychologists may resemble psychiatrists and psychoanalysts. The three professionals frequently work in mental health settings, diagnosing and treating psychological problems. The primary distinctions come from their training and specialization.

Clinical psychologists usually hold a Ph. D. degree in psychology or some similar degree (doctor of education or doctor of psychology). To earn a Ph.D., clinical psychologists spend about five years in graduate school studying normal and abnormal behavior, diagnosis (including testing), and treatment. They learn to conduct research to further our understanding of these subjects. During the course of their studies, they also serve an internship to learn firsthand from practitioners about serving troubled people. After completing their education, some clinical psychologists see patients in mental health or medical settings. Many - regardless of setting - participate in research programs.

Psychiatrists go through medical school, receiving a doctor of medicine (M.D.) degree. To qualify as psychiatrists, most serve a three-year residency in a mental health setting, typically a mental hospital. There they are trained to detect and treat emotional disturbances. Although they may come to prefer nonmedical treatment techniques, psychiatrists have special expertise in medical procedures (use of drugs, typically). Those working in health settings often become administrators.

In theory, anybody can become a psychoanalyst. Candidates must complete an intensive course of study on Freud's personality theories and treatment methods (known as psychoanalysis) at a recognized training institute (often a four-year commitment). In addition, would-be analysts must be psychoanalyzed themselves and supervised for several years while treating patients. The training may easily take seven years or longer. In the United States, most psychoanalytic training schools accept only physicians.  (Roughly 10 percent of American psychiatrist call themselves psychoanalysts.)

 


TABLE 1-1

Major Specialists in Psychology

Specialist

Approximate percentage (Full-Time, Doctorate-Holding APA Members)

Primary Activities

Clinical psychologists

Assesses and treats people with psychological problems; conducts research

Counseling psychologist

Counsels people with adjustment problems and promotes achievement in educational and work settings; combines research, consultation, and treatment

Industrial/ organizational psychologist

Combines research, consultation, and program development to enhance morale and efficiency on the job

Educational psychologist

Develops, designs, and evaluates materials and procedures for educational programs

Social psychologist

Studies ho people influence one another

Developmental psychologist

Studies changes in behavior with age

Experimental psychologist

Conducts research

School psychologist

Establishes programs, consults, treats problem youngsters, and does research in the school setting

Community psychologist

Treats distressed people within the community; initiates community action and develops community programs to enhance mental health

Engineering Psychologist

Designs and evaluates environments, machinery, training devices, programs, and systems to improve relationships

between people and environments

Personality psychologist

Studies how and why people differ from one another and how those differences can be assesed

Physiological psychologist

Studies the physical bases of behavior and cognition

Psychometric/ Quantitative psychologist

Develops and evaluates tests; designs research to measure psychological functions

Historical Perspectives

10 Ever since our ancestors appeared on earth, some 4 to 10 million years ago, human beings have probably been trying to understand themselves and each other. Although Aristotle (384-322 b.c is sometimes called the "father of psychology," written speculation about psychological matters did not begin with the Greek philosopher. Hundreds of years before him, the earliest philosophers on record were dealing with questions about human behavior. [.]

11 We now skip over thousands of years of philosophical investigation and begin our brief survey of the history of psychology with an account of events that occurred in the twentieth century. Early in this century, rival movements in psychology arose and evolved. Each helped shape our current loosely knit field (Kimble, 2984). Although contemporary psychologists no longer belong to specific movements, many identify with one of four major perspectives: behavioristic, cognitive, humanistic, or psychoanalytic.

Humanistic View

12 Humanistic psychologists are united by a common goal, to focus on "what it means to be alive as a human being."

Assumptions of Humanists

13 Most humanistic psychologists subscribe to the European philosophy called phenomenology. It holds that people see the world from their own  unique perspectives. To obtain valid knowledge about any human quality or experience, one must focus on it from different frames of reference, as diverse individuals experience it. In other words, subjective interpretation is central to all human activity and cannot be ignored.

14 The humanists share these additional attitudes:

1 Although psychologists must gather knowledge, their major concern should be service. Humanists want to expand and enrich human lives by helping people understand themselves and develop to the fullest. They assume that people are basically good.

16 2 Psychologists should study living human beings as wholes. Compartmentalizing people by functions such as perception, learning, and motivation does not produce meaningful information.

3 Significant human problems should be the subjects of psychological investigations. Among humanistic concerns are responsibility, life goals, commitment, fulfillment, creativity, loneliness, and spontaneity.

Psychoanalytic, behavioristic, and cognitive psychologists seek to uncover general laws of functioning that apply to everybody. The humanists emphasize the individual, the exceptional, and the unpredictable.

19 5 Methods of study are secondary to the problems studied. Of all psychologists, the humanists use the broadest range of research tools - from relatively objective, scientific techniques to subjective ones, like introspection and analysis of literature. Humanistic psychologists consider intuition a valid source of information.

Humanistic Research: On Self-Actualization

20 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was a leading figure in the humanistic movement. In the following excerpt, he describes beginning his classic research on people who achieved personal fulfillment, or "actualized" their own potential:

21 My investigations on self-actualization were not planned to be research and did not start out as research. They started out as the efforts of a young intellectual to try and understand two of his teachers whom he loved, adored, and admired, and who were very, very wonderful people. [I] sought to understand why these two people were so different from the run-of-the-mill people in the world. These two people were Ruth benedict and Max Wertheimer.

22 My own investigations began as a pre-scientific or non-scientific activity. I made descriptions and notes on Max Wertheimer, and I made note on Ruth Benedict. When I tried to understand them, think about them and wrote about them in my journal and my notes, I realized in one wonderful moment that their two patterns could be generalized. I was talking about a kind of person. I tried to see whether this pattern could be found elsewhere, and I did find it elsewhere, in one person after another. By ordinary standards of laboratory research, that is, of rigorous and controlled research, this simply was not research at all.

23 Eventually Maslow [1970] studied forty-nine persons whom he admired and considered self-actualized. Among his subjects were friends, living and dead public figures, and college students. Maslow questioned and tested the subjects themselves when he could. he also interviewed their friends and relatives. Little by little, he sketched verbal portraits of each person and analyzed the common themes. Among fifteen characteristics that distinguished self-fulfilled individuals were: being problem-centered rather than self-centered, having deep feelings of sympathy for people, and valuing solitude and privacy.



Psychoanalytic View

24 If you've never studied psychology before, the chances are you haven't heard of Fechner, Wundt, or even James until now. But you're probably well acquainted with the name of Sigmund Freud. Freud's name and ideas are so familiar that psychology is sometimes equated with his theories. But psychoanalytic theory (the name for Freudian ideas about personality, abnormality and treatment) is only one among psychological theories.

25 Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese physician who specialized in treating problems of the nervous system. He was particularly interested in what were called neurotic disorders. These conditions are characterized by excessive anxiety and, in some cases, by depression, fatigue, insomnia, or paralysis. The symptoms are attributed to conflict or stress.

Freud's Assumptions

26 Freud's ideas are still very much alive both in their original form and in numerous modifications. Psychologists who embrace the psychoanalytic perspective usually hold these views:

1 Psychologists should study the laws and determinants of personality (normal and abnormal) and treat mental disorders.

2 The unconscious is an important aspect of personality. Bringing what is unconscious to consciousness is crucial therapy for neurotic disorders.

3 Personality is most appropriately studied within the context of a close, long-term relationship between patient and therapist. As patients report what is on their minds, therapists analyze and interpret the material and observe behavior minutely.

TABLE 1-2

A Comparison of Four Current Views of Psychology

Behavioristic

Cognitive

Humanistic

Psychoanalytic

Subject matter

Any well-defined question about the functioning of any animal

The functioning of the mind

Questions about the whole person, subjective experience, significant problems; the extraordinary and individual as well as the usual and universal

Normal and abnormal personality (laws, determinants, unconscious aspects); treatment of abnormality

Major goals

Knowledge, application

Knowledge, application

Service and enrichment primary; knowledge secondary

Service and knowledge

Research methods emphasized

Objective methods

Objective and introspective methods

Observer's intuitive awareness respected; all procedures, even non-scientific ones such as literary analysis, acceptable

Patient: informal introspection; analyst: observation and analysis

Population studied

All animals

Primarily people

People

People (usually adults undergoing therapy)

[Extracts from: Davidoff, Linda, Introduction to Psychology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1987]

APPROACHING THE TEXT

The texts presented in this Unit are extracts from Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology of a psychology textbook

► Drawing on your knowledge of this genre from your previous studies, indicate below the purpose or purposes of a textbook, and some of its graphic or organizational characteristics.

WORKSHEET 1

Skimming and scanning for contents

► Skim and scan the extracts and place a tick beside the topics which are discussed in the texts.

Definition(s) of field of study.

Some examples of how psychology is involved in a multitude of social aspects.

The relationship of psychology with other social sciences.

Historical references to the development of the field of study.

Presentation and definitions of essential terminology.

An overall discussion of the contents of the textbook.

Indication of importance of the field of study.

Some methodological principles and problems.

WORKSHEET 2

Pre-reading vocabulary work

► The words in the table below all appear in the first two subsections of the text, in the paragraph indicated. Scan the text to find the context in which they are used, underline them, decide the word class, and write it in the first column.

► Then choose an appropriate definition for each word from the list below (there are more definitions than there are words), and write it in the second column. An example has been given.

a         A specialist in psychology

b         To determine the quality or significance of; to assess

c          The process of forming conclusions, judgements, or inferences from facts or premises

d         Tending to unify, harmonize or be consistent

e         Logically connected, consistent

f          To coincide in part with; have in common with

g         Affected by acute anxiety, pain or sorrow

h         The manner of conducting oneself

i          Performed by or existing in the mind

j          The subject or theme of a discourse or of one of its parts

k         Something that causes a person to act in a certain way; incentive

l          The act or process of knowing

m       The act or faculty  of apprehending by means of the senses or the mind

Word

Word Class

Definitions

1 psychologists (par. 1 a)

2 motives (par. 1 _ )

3 topics (par. 1 _ )

4 emphasis (par. 1 _ )



5 distressed (par. 1 _ )

6 overlaps (par. 2 _ )

7 evaluate (par. 3 _ )

8 mental (par. 4 _ )

9 behavior (par. 4 _ )

10 cohesive (par. 5 _ )

11 reasoning (par. 7 _ )

INTENSIVE READING

WORKSHEET 3

Previewing text organization/ content

As you will have noted, the textbook genre is characterized by typographically prominent headings and subheadings. The extracts presented in this unit have a general heading followed by a brief introduction and one or more several subsections. Section headings and subsections for the extracts are given below.

Scope of Psychology

Introduction

Topics Psychologists Study

Definition of psychology

Psychology Today (major  subfields of psychology)

Historical Perspectives

Introduction

Humanistic View

Assumptions of Humanists

Humanistic Research: On Self -Actualization

Psychoanalytic View

Freud's Assumptions

Read the introductory paragraphs under each general heading (par.1, respectively pars. 10-11) and choose from the list below an appropriate title for the introduction to each section, writing it in the space provided.

Scope of Psychology

Social influences on individuals

Mental and physical health care

A broad range of subjects studying the individual human being

Historical Perspectives

Aristotle as the "father of psychology"

The historical evolution of psychology

From Aristotle to current perspectives in psychology

Now skim the other parts of the text and insert the items below under the appropriate headings and subheadings.

Broad range of subjects- behavior and mental processes - educational psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology - human behavior - psychological studies - humanistic approach - psychoanalytic approach - subjective interpretation - personal fulfillment - neurotic disorders - personality, abnormality and treatment

Scope of Psychology

Introduction__________ ______ ____ _____ _______ ______ ________

Topics Psychologists Study__________ ______ ____ _____________

Definition of psychology __________ ______ ____ ______________

Psychology Today (major subfields of psychology)_____ _______ ______ ___________

Historical Perspectives

Introduction __________ ______ ____ _____ _______ ______ ___________

Humanistic View __________ ______ ____ _____ _______ ______ ______

Assumptions of Humanists __________ ______ ____ _____ _______ ______ ___________

Humanistic Research: On Self -Actualization __________ ______ ____ ___________

Psychoanalytic View __________ ______ ____ ___________________

Freud's Assumptions __________ ______ ____ __________ ______ ____ _

WORKSHEET 4

Explanations/ examples of key terms

There are a number of key terms in the excerpt on the Humanistic View for which an explanation or definition is given. In some cases, instead of an explanation, an example or further clarification of the term is provided. For a few terms, both an explanation and an example are given.

► Complete the chart below with reference to the text.

Key term

Explanation/ definition

Examples/ Further clarification

Phenomenology (par.13)

.one must focus on it from different frames of reference, as diverse individuals

(humanists) want to expand and enrich human lives by helping people understand themselves

Humanistic concerns (par. 17)

. from relatively objective, scientific techniques to subjective ones, like introspection and analysis of literature (par. 19)

.people who achieved personal fulfillment. (par. 20)

LANGUAGE WORK

WORKSHEET 5

Vocabulary work

► Find words in section Freud's assumptions that have similar meanings with words in table a) and words in Box 1-1 that mean approximately the opposite of the words in table b).

a) Words that have s similar meaning to the following

b) Words that mean approximately the opposite of:

1 maintain_____ _______ ______ _____________ (par.26)



1 differentiate _____ _______ ______ _____________ (par.1)

2 point of view _____ _______ ______ _________ (par.26)

2 ambiguous _____ _______ ______ ______________ (par. 1)

3 affliction _____ _______ ______ ____________ (par. 27)

3 seldom __________ ______ ____ _ (par. 1)

4 decisive _____ _______ ______ ____________ (par.28)

4 (to) impede _____ _______ ______ ______________ (par. 2)

5 (to) examine _____ _______ ______ ________ (par. 29)

5 extensive __________ ______ ____ (par. 4)

6 data _____ _______ ______ _______________ (par.29)

6 approximately _____ _______ ______ ____________ (par.4)

WORKSHEET 6

Focus on grammar: Nouns of Latin and Greek origin occurring in academic texts

In some words borrowed from foreign languages, foreign plurals occur instead of regular plurals. With other foreign words, both a regular plural and a foreign plural can occur.

Foreign plurals tend to be commoner in technical/specialized language, whereas the -s plural is more natural in everyday language; thus formula (sg.) - formulas (pl., general English) - formulae (pl., scientific English).

Here is a list of some nouns which have foreign plurals:

SINGULAR NOUNS

PLURAL NOUNS

Nouns in -us (Latin)

stimulus

bacillus

alumnus (masc., former student of a school, university)

The plural is in -i

stimuli [stimjulai]

bacilli

alumni

Nouns in -a (Latin)

alumna (fem., former student of a school, university)

libra

persona grata

The plural is in -ae

alumnae [ lamni

librae

personae gratae

Nouns in -um (Latin)

datum

curriculum

medium

ovum

symposium

The plural is in -a

data

curricula

media

ova

symposia

Nouns in -ex, -ix (Latin)

index

appendix

The plural is in -ices [ isi:z]

indices

appendices

Nouns in -is (Greek)

basis

analysis

crisis

hypothesis

diagnosis

thesis

The plural is in -es [ z

bases

analyses

crises

hypotheses

diagnoses

theses

Nouns in -on (Greek)

criterion

phenomenon

The plural is in -a

criteria

phenomena

Source: Leech, G., Svartvik, J., A Communicative English Grammar, Longman, 1996

► Read the following sentences; then identify and circle the correct form of the nouns in italics.

. Analysis/ analyses of learning is a multi-disciplinary venture requiring contributions from every branch of psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience.

. The emphasis/ emphases on the unique importance of mothers as attachment figures has not been denied.

. It took a few experiments before the psychologist Oskar Pfungst was able to reject the theory that Clever Hans understood the various stimulus/ stimuli - the questions and could do mathematics.

. He has studied a large variety of phenomenon/ phenomena of scientific interest.

. How people experience themselves - the focus/ foci of phenomenological psychology - then becomes highly relevant to the future progress of personality psychology.

WORKSHEET 7

Reutilization of key vocabulary

Choosing from the words listed below, complete the text Areas of Psychology. Each word may be used only once. Read through the text before beginning the exercise.

dimension (n) levels (n) fit together (v) goal (n)

complicated (adj) different (adj) psychological (adj) cognitive (adj)

beings (n) try (v) will lead (v) was (v)

areas (n) for example

What has emerged from the past century or so is that there is no simple way of understanding human _________ . People are __________ and have many sides to them. One consequence of the cognitive revolution and its aftermath was that psychologists began to recognize that a single unitary approach to psychology ______ no longer even a desirable ______. , let alone a practical one. Each different phase of psychological history left its mark, not just on the subject matter, but also on ___________ methodology. Psychologists _____ to look at human behavior from a range of different angles, so that they can get as complete a picture as possible. As a result, there are many different branches of psychology and areas of interest.

For convenience, we categorize these into general ______ but these categories are not at all exclusive, and often one topic will bring together knowledge from many __________ areas of psychology. This is because any human experience can be studied from various angles. The experience of emotion, ______ has a physiological dimension, a social _________, a personality dimension, a ______ dimension, and several more. Most modern ___________ deal with the diversity of psychological knowledge by using the concept of levels of explanation - the idea that putting together knowledge from different _________ of understanding, and different arreas of psychology, __________ us to a richer awareness of the full picture. The idea of levels of explanation helps us to see how the different ideas ___________

OBSERVATIONS ON TEXT TYPE

TEXTBOOK

Function:

To present in a clear and accessible way to a non-specialized reader an introductory and/or general overview of a given topic, either of a broad subject area (e.g. psychology) or of a more specific aspect of a subject area (e.g. The History of Modern Romania)

Structure:

In accordance with its aim of providing clear and comprehensive information on a topic, the textbook is organized in such a way as to facilitate use and consultation by the reader. We thus normally find clearly marked divisions into sections and subsections, summaries of the contents of each chapter, occasionally exercises or questions for discussion on the contents of the chapters, as well as charts, figures, tables, photographs. The latest editions of a big majority of textbooks are also accompanied by study packages (Student's Guide, Teacher's Guide, video and audio cassettes, CD-roms etc. Addresses for further information on the INTERNET are usually provided.) 

Aspects of language:

In texts belonging to this genre, common features of language are:

a)        the frequent use of the simple present tense to describe and explain, and modal auxiliaries (e.g. in the consideration of hypothetical situations, depending on the topic of the textbook)

b)        the introduction of key terminology and explanations of definitions of such

c)        frequent discourse markers or rhetorical questions which "guide" the reader through parts of the text (e.g. "Let's look at some problems.", "How does psychology explain such a fact?")





Document Info


Accesari: 3217
Apreciat: hand-up

Comenteaza documentul:

Nu esti inregistrat
Trebuie sa fii utilizator inregistrat pentru a putea comenta


Creaza cont nou

A fost util?

Daca documentul a fost util si crezi ca merita
sa adaugi un link catre el la tine in site


in pagina web a site-ului tau.




eCoduri.com - coduri postale, contabile, CAEN sau bancare

Politica de confidentialitate | Termenii si conditii de utilizare




Copyright © Contact (SCRIGROUP Int. 2024 )